The problem of Vassalage in the West and the East: relations of the Qing Empire with Mongolia and Tibet

 
PIIS086919080003958-0-1
DOI10.31857/S086919080003958-0
Publication type Article
Status Published
Authors
Occupation: Principal Research Fellow, Institute of Oriental Studies
Affiliation: Institute of Oriental Studies, Russian Academy of Sciences
Address: Russian Federation, Moscow
Journal nameVostok. Afro-Aziatskie obshchestva: istoriia i sovremennost
EditionIssue 1
Pages39-54
Abstract

The article discusses the vassalage emergence and transformation in Europe with regard to different forms of feudal subordination in the Asian states. The author argues that there were similarities between these forms in Europe and Asia though they were more diverse in the East. He proposes a general typology of vassalage based on its similarities throughout the world as follows: subordination of lower nobles (vassals) to higher ones (lords and monarchs) expressed in the oath of fidelity, obligation or written agreement; duty of service (military, administrative, and/or aid, payments, tribute or taxes) by vassals to lords; land, other property or rights held by vassal from his lord and/or in exchange for his fidelity and service to the lord; identical understanding of the vassal – lord relations by both parties. Any other forms of relations excluding at least one of the above mentioned points cannot be defined as vassalage. The vassalage relationship did not emerge also in cases when both parties considered in it considered their relations differently. Thus Mongolia was a vassal to the Manchu Qing Dynasty, but Tibet was not. Tibet relation to the Qing Empire should be rather defined based on the “priest–patron” model.

KeywordsQing Empire, China, Mongolia, Tibet, Europe, Asia, vassalage, vassals, lords, suzerainty, authority, monarchy, dynasty, feudalism
Received20.03.2019
Publication date21.03.2019
Number of characters46432
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1 Широко распространено мнение, что и Монголия, и Тибет в XVII–XVIII вв. стали частями или вассалами Китая, который обычно приравнивается к империи Цин, созданной завоевателями-маньчжурами. Есть два подхода к тому, что представляли собой «иностранные династии Китая». Один – что они правили полиэтничными империями со Срединным государством (Чжунго, т. е. Китаем) в «центре» (от Центральной равнины – центра ареала ханьцев, т. е. китайцев) и «периферией», причем в такие периоды понятие Срединного государства распространялось из «центра» на «периферию», так как его на себя принимали и представители живших там этносов [Li, 2008, с. 340–350]. Другой подход – что эти династии использовали разную легитимацию для своего правления или влияния на разные этносы (монголов, ханьцев, тибетцев), в понятие Срединного государства вкладывали другой смысл, чем ханьцы, а само китайское понятие династии – чао принципиально отличается от европейского и должно трактоваться как государственное образование [Доронин, 1995, с. 157; Дмитриев, Кузьмин, 2014, с. 5–17]. В частности, монголы использовали китайское название своей династии Да Юань как синоним Их Монгол улус – Великое Монгольское государство [Kim, 2015, с. 300–301].
2 В связи с этим, возникает вопрос о статусе «периферии» и/или зависимых территорий в цинский период, в то время как завоеванный «центр» управлялся как совокупность провинций, и их статус не вызывает дискуссий.
3 Для прояснения данного вопроса важно четко определить понятие «вассалитет», широко трактуемое в литературе не только для разных форм подчинения на феодальном Западе (см., например, [Reynolds, 2001, с. 1 3]), но и на Востоке, обычно без уточнений (например, [История Востока…, 2002, 2004]), причем нередко и для дофеодальных обществ (например, для Угарита – XIX–XII вв. до н.э.: [Van Soldt, 2010, с. 198–207]). С. Рейнолдс справедливо отмечает, что нельзя трактовать европейский вассалитет через его интерпретации XVII–XVIII вв. При этом даже в старых источниках слова, обычно переводимые как «вассал», могли иметь разный смысл [Reynolds, 2001, с. 3, 23], и уже в cредние века в Европе этот термин иногда трактовался широко и применялся даже к крепостным и простым арендаторам [Bloch, 1982, с. 442].
4 Исходя из точного понятия вассалитета и места его происхождения – Западной Европы, следует выделить его типологические признаки и, на основе анализа форм властеотношений на Востоке, выявить те из них, которые могут соответствовать этим признакам.
5

ЕВРОПА

6 Слово vassi впервые встречается в Салическом законе1 начала VI в., где означает слуг без конкретных коннотаций их статуса. В конце VIII в. в государстве франков это слово, или иногда vassali, стало более обычным и, по-видимому, использовалось для мирян, которые служили королям и другим господам в их войсках, выполняя задачи обороны и управления. Тогда же появились слова feo, feus (как ежегодная рента), от которых произошли слова феод и фьеф [Reynolds, 2001, с. 84–85]. Церемония установления вассалитета впервые датируется 757 г. во франкских анналах, хотя это может быть позднейшей вставкой [Ganshof, 1939, с. 155–156]. 1. Свод обычного права племени салических франков.

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