Essay on the history of teaching Russian language in Xinjiang during the Qing Dynasty since the late eighteenth to the early twentieth century

Follow the developing relations between Russia and Qing Empire the topical issue was to train Russian language specialist by local officials. The biggest need in this kind of personnel was in the border of the two Emperies where the main bilateral ties were concentrated. Xinjiang that had mutual border with Russia had one of the special places in the Russian foreign policy. Active military and diplomatic, trade and economic activities of the Russians in this Chinese region created the necessary prerequisites for establishing government bodies there that were in charge of various aspects of bilateral relations including the training of interpreters for local authorities. Russian language studying in Xinjiang is a rather topical issue. Russian language school that was established there in the end of the 18th century was the first official school created by Chinese authorities out-of capital where Russian language was taught. In the early 20th century Xinjiang officials were the first from other local administrators who begun to send students to Russia for education purposes that was in the interest of popularizing Russian language in the Chinese border. At the same time in spite of high attention of authority to Russian language developing in Xinjiang the schools opened there were not able to secure to train this kind of specialists in full.

There were little references in historical literature on Russian language schools graduates who had become a well-known Russian language specialist in the future.

Keywords

Qing Empire, Xinjiang, Russian language teaching, humanitarian contacts, Russian language schools, studying Chinese students abroad.

Received

20.03.2019

Publication date

21.03.2019

Number of characters

36748

Cite

GOST	Lapin P. Essay on the history of teaching Russian language in Xinjiang during the Qing Dynasty since the late eighteenth to the early twentieth century // Vostok. Afro-Aziatskie obshchestva: istoriia i sovremennost – 2019. – Issue 1 C. 81-92 [Electronic resource]. URL: https://vostokoriens.jes.su/S086919080003961-4-1 (circulation date: 23.04.2024). DOI: 10.31857/S086919080003961-4
MLA	Lapin, Pavel "Essay on the history of teaching Russian language in Xinjiang during the Qing Dynasty since the late eighteenth to the early twentieth century." Vostok. Afro-Aziatskie obshchestva: istoriia i sovremennost 1 (2019):81-92. DOI: 10.31857/S086919080003961-4
APA	Lapin P. (2019). Essay on the history of teaching Russian language in Xinjiang during the Qing Dynasty since the late eighteenth to the early twentieth century. Vostok. Afro-Aziatskie obshchestva: istoriia i sovremennost (1), pp.81-92 DOI: 10.31857/S086919080003961-4

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1	During the reign of Qing Dynasty the development of teaching the Russian language in China was essential. It was carried out by taking into account the practical needs of the state in training of linguists. The most engaged Chinese regions were that primarily supported by political-military and trade-economic realities with Russia. Despite Russian interests in China were represented in whole Empire, the main contacts were naturally concentrated near the border areas. It included Xinjiang, with which Russia had a common long border line.
2	The study of how Russian language was taught in Xinjiang is very important. This is not only about the context of understanding the history of Russian studies in China, but also about estimation of Chinese border authorities activity in implementing the foreign policy line with regard on Russian state. It is particularly relevant in given the circumstances. I mean, that a part of Xinjiang territory (Ili (Taranchi) sultanate with its capital in Yining) was integrated into the Russian Empire in 1871–1881.
3	The political process of Xinjiang region’s formation and its entry into the Chinese empire was very difficult. This region was plunged into a warrior and insurrection After the defeat of Dzungar Khanate by Manchuria-Qing troops in 1755–1759, all leaders of this battle fought against Qing Dynasty Empire. Qing forces suppressed all the centers of resistance only in early 1880’s. They compelled all the East Turkestan (Kashgaria) and Dzungaria In 1884 the province of Xinjiang was formed with its capital in Urumqi (formerly known as Dihua, 迪化) as part of Qing Empire¹.	1. For more on Xinjiang political history, see in: [Бармин, Дмитриев, 2016, с. 219–221].
4	Russia had always shown great interest to Xinjiang in terms of strengthening its position in the Asian region while competing with other powers. Treaty of Kuldja signed in 1851 with the Chinese Empire gave Russia to solidify in the region. It also had provided Russian merchants significant tax and trade benefits and allowed to open the first Russian consular offices in Kuldja (1852–1865) and Chuguchak (Tarbagatay 1853–1865 restored in 1883) [Циндай чжунъэ гуаньси… 1979, p. 58–59, 86].
5	Legal guarantees contributed to the increase in human flows in Xinjiang and the growths of the Russian expand community² . The expansion of Russian consul residence in China increased taking into account the land contacts consolidation. New Russian consulates were established in Kashgar (1882) and Turfane (1895). Russia reserved the right to open consulates or consulates in Hami (not opened) and Urumqi. In 1896 the consulate in Turpan was closed and in 1897 was transferred to Urumqi [Цзи Дачунь, 1982, p. 75–78; Чжао Цзяньфэн, 2014, p. 64–66]. The agreements made it possible to determine the line of the state border passage, which was in the interests of stabilizing the Russian borderland (it was also poorly protected from external interference) [Уметбаев, Дудникова, 2015, p. 261–263].	2. For instance, there were about 35 000 of Russians in Ili Territory (the most compact residence of Russians) in 1870’s. Nevertheless, the number of Russians decreased after return of this area to Qing in 1881 [Петякшина, 2015, с. 129]. In 1916 there were 15,480 partials of the Russian Empire in Xinjiang (without taking into account Russian merchants, which were living on a permanent basis [Лашутина, 2013, с. 67].
6	Trade was on the rise. In 1895 the volume of supplies from Xinjiang to Russia amounted to 7.5 million rubles. It reached a record mark in the history of 25.2 million rubles in 1914 [Ли Лэй, Тянь Хуа, 2000, p. 75–77]³. Three branches of the Russian-Asian Bank were opened in Xinjiang (Kashgaria (1900), Kuldja (1903), Tarbagatai (1903)) during the Qing period [Бармин, Дмитриев, 2016, с. 221; Чжао Цзяньфэн, 2014, p. 67; Шэнь Цзяньган, Чжан Лэй, 2013, p. 118].	3. Russia exported cotton, sheep wool, raisins, skins of valuable beasts, leather from Xinjiang. It imported to Xinjiang iron products, agricultural equipment, dishes, fabrics, matches, soap, etc. to Xinjiang [Бармин, Дмитриев, 2016, с. 221].
7	The question of Chinese authorities who knew the Russian language presence became more acute. It happened because of deepening and rising contacts with Russian Empire. The Russian administrators themselves (not without difficulty) provided themselves with the necessary translation reserves. In particular, they opened a school of interpreters in Kuldja in 1884 [Скачков, 1977, с. 244]. On the other hand, official Chinese representatives paid not much attention to the training specialists with knowledge of the Russian language for a long time. While there was developed system of general elementary and special education in the region⁴, where there was already some experience in teaching Russian.	4. General education in Xinjiang was poorly developed in 18th – the middle of 19th centuries. The school infrastructure grew as the region became more integrated into Qing Empire. In 1878 compulsory primary free education was introduced in Kashgariya and Dzungaria. 37 schools with a three-year period of study were opened. There were lessons of Chinese classical works interpretation [Чжоу Хун, 2001, p. 298]. There were 57 more classes of primary compulsory free education in 1884. The post of inspector of educational institutions was introducedin 1906 in Xinjiang. There were 607 primary schools in 41 administrative units by 1910. Including 205 schools, where teaching was conducted only in Chinese. The total number of students increased to 15,458 people, teachers to 714 people. The amount of financing was 247 thousand tael of silver, while about 90% of the funds came from the local budget. Most primary schools gave a general education: students studied canonical writings, Chinese and Manchu languages, arithmetic, history, geography, drawing, music. The term of study was 9 years. For a short period from 1905 to 1910 in Xinjiang, 10 secondary specialized educational institutions were opened with a term of 5 years (pedagogical, legal, police, several military), in which 735 students were trained [Чжоу Хун, 2001, p. 304; Чжунго шаошу…, 1998, p. 226, 228, 232– 233]. One-year courses for training the primary school teachers were opened in connection with the total shortage of teachers at the training colleges [Фан Янь, Го Юаньлинь, 2011, p. 86–87].
8	The first attempts to improve the Russian language in Xinjiang were undertaken by local authorities back in 1790s. Ili military governor (jiangjun) Mongolian Baonin (1734–1808), apparently sensing the need for training such kind of specialists,⁵ turned to the leadership of Beijing Russian Language School at the Palace Chancellery (Chinese: Neige eluosi wenguan, 内阁俄罗斯文馆, established in 1708) to provide assistance in organizing the training of local subjects for the Russian language. In 1792 the school sent its graduate to Xinjiang, who in the same year organized the School of the Russian Language in Ili Sultanate (Chinese: Eluosi xue, 俄罗斯学) [Цзунтунилиши’и, 1990, p. 191]. In Chinese schools , in addition to the Russian language, the Tocharian alphabet was also taught [Ма Вэньхуа, 2006, с. 13]. Ten children of local servicemen were ordered to take training [Сичуй цзунтун шилюэ, 2010, цз. 8, цзяосюэ, p. 131]. The students were paid a small scholarship. They were divided into two categories (five people each) taking into account their academic performance. One who took the first place received 1 cyan 1 fen, the second received 1 cyan. In addition, all students received money for meals in the amount of 2 tael silver per month [Цзунтун или ши’и, 1990, p. 191].	5. There is a legend, that the reason of establishing Russian language school was the moment, when an elementary misunderstanding of Chinese authorities the message in Russian almost led to a border conflict between the two empires. In historical literature it is reported that somehow in the borderland Kazakhs captured a Mongolian monk named Samailin and sent him to Russia. From there, he mysteriously returned to his homeland and brought a message in Russian with him. The message stated that in the spring Russian troops in the amount of 50–60 thousand people. will attack Xinjiang. The letter was forwarded to the Ili military governor Baonin. He ordered to train troops to repel attacks of the Russian army. Meanwhile, Samailin and the letter were sent to Beijing for inquiries the circumstances of his stay in Russia. The letter analysis and the inquiries of fugitive revealed the complete inconsistency of the idea of a Russian invasion in Qing Empire borders. The governor was instructed to hastily withdraw troops. This incident led the local leadership to think about the importance of having at least some people familiar with the Russian language (for. cit.: [Лун Кайи, 2013, p. 150]). It is necessary to say that local authorities reaction about aspersion fugitive were largely justified. From 1750’s, began deterioration of bilateral contacts, including caused by Russia's interference in the wars of the Dzungarian Khanate with Qings (1755–1759), the return to Xinjiang of the Volga Kalmyks (Torgut) sworn of Russian state.

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АВПРИ – Архив внешней политики Российской империи (Russian Empire foreign policy Archive – REFPA)

РГАДА – Российский государственный архив древних актов. (Russian State Archive of Ancient Acts – RSAAA)

ПИА КНР – Первый исторический архив КНР. (First historical archive of PRC – FHA PRC)