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The historical development of decentralisation in Syria
 
Код статьиS086919080020199-5-1
DOI10.31857/S086919080020201-8
Тип публикации Статья
Статус публикации Опубликовано
Авторы
Рабат Луджан  
Должность: Младший научный сотрудник, Аспирант
Аффилиация: Институт демографических исследований Федерального научно-исследовательского социологического центра Российской академии наук
Адрес: Москва, 119333, Российская Федерация, Москва, ул. Фотиевой, 6, к. 1
Гаджимурадова Гюльнара Ильясбековна
Должность: Доцент, ведущий научный сотрудник
Аффилиация: МГИМО МИД России, Институт демографических исследований Федерального научно-исследовательского социологического центра Российской академии наук
Адрес: Москва, ул. Фотиевой, 6, стр.1, 119 333
Название журналаВосток. Афро-Азиатские общества: история и современность
ВыпускВыпуск 6
Страницы101-111
Аннотация

This article presents a comparative historical analysis of the development of decentralization in Syria during three historical stages: under the Ottoman empire, during the French mandate, and in the period after the country became independent. The purpose of this research is to reveal patterns that explain the current state of decentralization in Syria today. Primary sources such as legislative decrees and constitutions, as well as secondary scientific and analytical sources are used in this work to analyse the development of decentralization in Syria. This article identifies different aspects, in which the local administration system today has been influenced by previous laws and practices developed by previous governments, namely the country’s administrative-territorial division, the concentration of power at the local level with centrally appointed persons, and the perception of decentralization as a threat to security. Despite many constitutions and legislations throughout Syria’s history mentioning decentralization and empowering local administrative units, governance remains a highly centralized process, giving elected local administrative units limited powers and responsibilities. The securitization of administrative processes as well as prioritizing economic, political, military, and other elite interests throughout Syria’s history have been obstacles to decentralising powers and responsibilities to local administration bodies. However, due to the development of events on the ground in Syria since the beginning of the crisis in 2011, different views on the best form of decentralization for the country’s future, and the role it can play at this important stage of the country's history began to appear in the Syrian society.

Ключевые словаadministrative-territorial division, decentralization, devolution of powers, centralization, center-local relations, Syrian Arab Republic
Получено08.12.2022
Дата публикации31.12.2022
Кол-во символов30101
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Оглавление

INTRODUCTION
SYRIA UNDER THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE
SYRIA UNDER THE FRENCH MANDATE
AFTER GAINING INDEPENDENCE
DECENTRALISATION IN SYRIA SINCE THE BEGINNING OF THE CIVIL WAR
CONCLUSION
1

INTRODUCTION
2 In 2011, Legislative Decree (LD) No.107, the “Local administration law”, was adopted in the Syrian Arab Republic (SAR), the purpose of which was to modernise and decentralise governing processes in the country. Due to the ongoing civil war which threatened Syria’s territorial integrity and strained the country’s resources, many of the LD’s contents remain unrealized. This research reveals that, even though the concept of decentralisation was introduced in many constitutions and legislations throughout Syria’s history, the public administration system in Syria remains highly centralised, as developing decentralised local administration has not been prioritized.
3 According to many researchers, decentralized local governance can play an important role in the restoration of peace and infrastructure both during and after different kinds of conflicts [Tschudin, 2018; Brinherhoff, 2011]. Considering the current situation of Syria since the beginning of the civil war in 2011, mature and effective local governance can play an important part in rebuilding the country and restoring its infrastructure.
4 Based on the analysis of primary and secondary sources, this paper identifies patterns, which explain why local governance in Syria remains a highly centralized process, and reveals different ways, in which previous constitutions, laws and practices have influenced the local government system in Syria today.
5

SYRIA UNDER THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE
6 The territory of today's SAR is part of the so-called Bilad al-Sham region, which, from the 16th to the beginning of the 20th century (1516‒1918), was ruled by the Ottoman Empire. The Ottomans divided the territory under their control into administrative units and developed a two-level management system, which included janissaries (the Sultan's elite troops) who were directly connected to the central government and responsible for maintaining order and collecting taxes, and the civil administration, which operated at the provincial level. The highest executive functions were performed by the military authorities, while judicial and basic administrative functions were performed by the civil authorities.
7 The Ottoman Empire went through several stages of territorial and administrative reorganisations aimed at reducing corruption and reforming the army, treasury, and administrative and territorial division of its provinces to increase its efficiency and influence in the regions. The most important of the administrative-territorial reforms is the adoption of the Provincial Reform Law, also known as the ‘Vilayet Law’ in 1864, according to which the administrative-territorial division in Bilad al-Sham under the Ottoman Empire was carried out according to the following scheme (fig. 1): each vilayet (Arabic:إيالة) is headed by a Wali and divided into sanjaks (Arabic: سنجق), each of which is headed by a Mutasarrif, and the sanjaks, in turn, are divided into Kadas (Arabic:قضاء), headed by a Kaimakam. Kadas are, in turn, divided into subdistricts (Arabic: ناحية), headed by a subdistrict manager, and villages and farms headed by a Mukhtar.
8 The Wali and Mutasarrif were appointed by the Sultan, and the Kaimakam by the Ottoman government. The subdistrict manager and mukhtar were elected. Doctor of Law A. Heidborn explains that “each agent is strictly subordinate to his hierarchical superior, who exercises over him a right of absolute control and may reform or cancel all his acts. The administration of each province [vilayt] is, therefore, concentrated in the hands of the Wali who, in his turn, depends entirely on the central power” [Heidborn, 1908, p. 159].
9 After the adoption of the “Vilayet Law”, ‘Syria’ was divided into 3 vilayets:
10
  1. the vilayet of Syria;
  2. the vilayet of Aleppo;
  3. the vilayet of Beirut.
11 In addition, two sandjaks, Jerusalem and Deir Al Zor, were considered independent sandjaks, because their governors reported directly to the central authority, and not to the respective governor general “either because of religious and political (Jerusalem), or for administrative reasons (Zor)” [Heidborn, 1908, p, 7].
12 Due to several local, regional, and international factors, including the expansion of the Ottoman Empire into Europe; the growing influence of European countries in the region; and the demands of Arab nationalists among the region’s residents for independence, the influence of the central government in various regions of Bilad al-Sham diminished over the years. European countries started building relationships with minority groups. For example, “Oriental Christian and Jewish merchants mostly had foreign protection, and whole communities had links with one or other power ‒ the Catholics with France, the Orthodox with Russia” [Hourani, 1981, p. 16]. Moreover, several legal and underground political organizations began to function actively in the region, demanding decentralisation and “raising the status of the Arab nation, granting broader powers to local authorities in the provinces and, in general, carrying out a number of social and administrative reforms” [Pir-Budagova, 2015, p. 9]. In response, between 1839 and 1876 the Ottoman empire went through a period of administrative reforms (tanzimat). In 1871, a new ‘System of Public administration’ was adopted, and in 1913 it was amended and named the ‘Law of Public administration’. The law defined the functions of the civil administrative apparatus and regulated the relations between its members in accordance with a system of subordination. However, according to Palestinian historian A. Awad, this system was extremely centralised, “limiting the civil apparatus in the state, even in the simplest matters, to instructions and orders issued in the capital and then sent to Damascus” [Awad, 1969, p. 69].

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Figure 1. Administrative-territorial division and division of powers among different government levels in Syria during the Ottoman Empire’s rule. (Awad. A.M. Al idara al osmaniya fi vilayet suria 1864-1914 [Ottoman rule in the vilyet of Syria 1864-1914]. Master's Degree. Egypt: Ain Shams University. 1969. 396 p.) [Скачать]

Figure 2. Administrative-territorial division and division of powers among different government levels in Syria according to LD no. 15 of 1971. (Legislative decree No.15 “On local government” adopted in 11.6.1971 (in Arabic).) [Скачать]

Figure 3. Administrative-territorial division and division of powers among different government levels in Syria according to LD no. 107 of 2011. (Legislative decree No. 107 “Local administration law” adopted in 23.08.2011 (in Arabic). ) [Скачать]

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