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“Russian ulus” of the Golden Horde
 
PIIS086956870014169-6-1
DOI10.31857/S086956870014169-6
Publication type Article
Status Published
Authors
Vadim Trepavlov 
Affiliation: Institute of Russian History, RAS
Address: Russian Federation, Moscow
Journal nameRossiiskaia istoriia
Edition
Pages220-232
Abstract

            

Keywords
AcknowledgmentThis article is a translation of: V.V. Trepavlov. «Russian ulus» of the Golden Horde. Rossiiskaia Istoria. 2021. № 1. P. 3–15. DOI: 10.31857/S086956870013438-2.
Received19.03.2021
Publication date19.03.2021
Number of characters54354
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1 After the Mongol invasion in 1237–1241, most of the Russian principalities were forced to submit to the invaders. Rus became part of the Yeke Mongol Ulus – the Mongol Empire. Visits of the princes to bow to the new overlords – to the Volga headquarters of the rulers of Ulus Jochi (the future Golden Horde) and the imperial capital Karakorum, the conduct of a general imperial census in the Russian lands, the introduction of taxation there clearly demonstrated this new status of Rus’. After the empire had broken up into independent ulus khanates in the second half of the 1260s, the supreme power over the Slavic subjects passed to the Jochids – the khans of the Golden Horde. So, if the belonging of the conquered Rus’ to the Mongol Empire does not seem to cause noticeable disputes and doubts in historiography, then its position in the "post-imperial" situation remains controversial.
2 The very fact of the conquest did not seem to Russian and Soviet researchers to be a sufficient basis for regarding the Russian lands as part of the Golden Horde. Krivosheev rightly noted: "Most of the Russian historians believed and still believe that Rus’ as a territory and society did not become the territory of the 'Jochiev ulus'"1. It is no coincidence that the author of the only monographic study of the historical geography of the Golden Horde, Egorov did not consider Russian lands among the Horde possessions2. 1. Krivosheev Yu.V. Rus' i mongoly. Issledovanie po istorii Severo-Vostochnoi Rusi XIII–XIV vv. [Rus’ and Mongols. Research on the History of North-Eastern Russia of the 13th-14th Centuries]. Sankt-Peterburg, 2003. P. 117. (In Russ.)

2. Egorov V.L. Istoricheskaia geografiia Zolotoi Ordy v XIII–XIV vv. [Historical Geography of the Golden Horde in the 13th-14th Centuries]. Moskva, 1985. (In Russ.)
3 If to take recent studies, then, as an example of a concentrated presentation of such an approach, one can refer to Gorskii: after the campaigns of Batu and the administrative measures of the government of the Yeke Mongol Ulus in the 1240s-1250s, "The Russian lands fell into dependence on the Mongol khans (hereinafter, the author’s italics are in quotes – the author’s note)". When the Golden Horde had become a separate state, "the Russian principalities remained in vassal dependence only on it"; this "vassal dependence" was expressed in the right of the Horde khans to establish princes on the thrones and receive tribute ("Horde vykhod") and other taxes from them3. 3. Gorskii A.A. Rus': ot slavianskogo rasseleniia do Moskovskogo tsarstva [Rus’: from Slavic Settlement to Muscovite Tsardom]. Moskva, 2004. P. 190–191. (In Russ.)
4 The concept of "dependence" concerning the Russian-Horde relations has recently been actively introduced into the Russian scientific discourse, displacing (but not completely replacing) the former established "Mongol-Tatar yoke", and was even legalised in the Federal State Educational Standard of Basic General Education4. Thus, there is no question of considering the enslaved Rus part of the Golden Horde state. "Russia was clearly not part of the Ulus, and the Tatars allowed the Russian princes to preserve their thrones," Halperin5 writes, implying by the Ulus, obviously, the territory of the Horde, directly controlled by the khan, his officials, and governors. 4. See: Programma osnovnogo obshchego obrazovaniia po istorii. 5–9 klassy (bazovyi uroven') [Basic General Education Program in History. 5-9 grades (basic level)]. (In Russ.) Available at: >>>> (access date 21.07.2020).

5. Halperin Ch.J. Russia and the Golden Horde. The Mongol Impact on Medieval Russian History. Bloomington, 1985. P. 63.
5 The definition of Rus’s dependence on the Horde is often accompanied by the epithet "vassal" (as in the above quote from Gorskii’s work). However, a careful analysis of the Russian-Horde relations of domination-subordination reveals significant differences from their Western European feudal and later prototypes – vassalage, protectorate, ministeriality, etc.6 Therefore, from time to time in the literature, it has been assumed about a closer interaction of these two historical subjects. Thus, Gumilev saw in the period of the 13th-15th centuries a mutually beneficial alliance and even a "symbiosis" of Rus’ and the Horde7 borrowed from biology, i.e. also perceived them as two mismatched – albeit supposedly mutually loyal – system elements. Vernadsky believed that "Rus’ was a part of the Mongol empire and a regional khanate", and "while Western and Eastern Rus’ were under the khan’s control, both were parts of the same political entity, the Golden Horde"8. However, for a long time, such points of view were not shared by almost any historian, remaining essentially marginal. 6. See: Seleznev Yu.V. Kartiny ordynskogo iga [Pictures of the Horde Yoke]. Voronezh, 2017. P. 33, 34. (In Russ.)

7. Gumilev L.N. Drevniaia Rus' i Velikaia Step' [Ancient Russia and the Great Steppe]. Moskva, 1989. P. 543. (In Russ.); Gumilev L.N. Ot Rusi k Rossii. Ocherki etnicheskoi istorii [From Rus’ to Russia. Essays on Ethnic History]. Moskva, 1992. P. 155. (In Russ.)

8. Vernadskii G.V. Mongoly i Rus' [Mongols and Russia]. Tver’; Moskva, 1997. P. 6, 240. (In Russ.)
6 In recent years, due to the growing interest and intensification of research on the history of the Golden Horde, an alternative view is increasingly penetrating the pages of scientific reports, articles, and monographs (but not textbooks – this is still a long way off). Seleznev’s works are devoted to the examination of the degree and signs of the subordination of Rus’ to the Horde through the analysis of the relationship between princes and khans. He concluded that the rulers of the Rurik’s house held "in fact, administrative positions" in the Horde state system, were included "in the system of interaction between the elite of the Jochi Ulus", which meant "their inclusion in the ruling layer of the Horde"9. The Russian-Horde relations are largely presented in a new way in the third volume of the "History of the Tatars" and the generalizing fundamental monograph "The Golden Horde in World History"10. 9. Seleznev Yu.V. Russkie kniaz'ia v sostave praviashchei elity Dzhuchieva Ulusa v XIII–XV vekakh [Russian Princes in the Ruling Elite of the Jochi Ulus in the 13th–15th Centuries]. Voronezh, 2013. P. 304. (In Russ.); Seleznev Yu.V. Kartiny ordynskogo iga [Pictures of the Horde Yoke]. P. 34. (In Russ.)

10. Istoriia tatar s drevneishikh vremen. T. III. Ulus Dzhuchi (Zolotaia Orda). XIII – seredina XV v. [History of the Tatars from Ancient Times. Vol. III. Ulus Jochi (Golden Horde). 13th–mid-15th Century]. Kazan, 2009. (In Russ.); Zolotaia Orda v mirovoi istorii [The Golden Horde in World History]. Kazan, 2016. (In Russ.)
7 Probably, so far one can only talk about the first steps, the emerging tendency to rethink this problem. However, these steps already allowed Galimov to claim that recent studies have shown "quite convincingly" that "the ancient Russian principalities were not just dependent on the Horde, but were part of the Golden Horde space". With that, "the totality of Russian principalities became a kind of separate 'Russian ulus'"11. In 2019, within the framework of the VI International Golden Horde Forum in Kazan’, a roundtable discussion was held on "Russian ulus: issues of subordination of the ancient Russian lands to the Golden Horde". 11. Galimov T.R. O vkhozhdenii drevnerusskoi znati v sostav elit Zolotoi Ordy (postanovka voprosa) [On the Entry of the Ancient Russian Nobility into the Elites of the Golden Horde (Formulation of the Question)]. Zolotoordynskaia tsivilizatsiia [Golden Horde Civilization]. 2017. No. 10. P. 261, 263. (In Russ.)

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